Describe and evaluate the accounts of depressive realism that can be Essay

Describe and evaluate the accounts of depressive realism that can be derived from associative and rule-based theories of learning and memory - Essay Example Associative theories of learning and memory maintain that a psychological process is involved in conditioning. Very much a behavioral account (similar to classical conditioning) and causal in nature, associative theories submit that people forge judgments based on their experience of the pairing of two stimuli and based on the strength of these associations. The delta rule can be used to explain this account of contingency and causality judgment. The cue precedes the second event, the outcome, in a consistent manner and if the outcome is consistently regular, associations are formed between cue and outcome so that the two become synthesized together. It is necessary, Price and Yates believe (1995), that the cue precedes the outcome for associative learning to be achieved, although others opine that, regardless of whether cue does or does not precede outcome, it is sufficient for participants to believe it as causal to the outcome for judgment to ensue. Models such as the expectancy-v alue model (Fishbein, 1963) and the association model (Bowers, 1986) are examples of associative accounts. The expectancy-value model argues that attitudes are a total sum of evaluative beliefs towards attitude objects, whilst Bower’s association model, although taking a cognitive stance, maintains that cognition and affect are linked through evaluative memory-based mental nodes that, via spreading activation, instigate perception. The stronger, or more intense the experience, the more instinctive and pronounced the bias. Rule-based theories on the other hand maintain that people arrive at contingency judgments by a sort of mental schema that encodes the events, categorizes them, and employs some mental logic to arrive at inferences and deductions. This it does by summing the frequency of events, and by employing a heuristic, referred to by Price and Yates (1995) as â€Å"blocking†, where perceivers

Ethnic Marketing in Indonesia Essay Example for Free

Ethnic Marketing in Indonesia Essay Indonesia’s national slogan  « Bhinneka ika tungat.  » that means unity and diversity, is a strong local motto that celebrates differences, specially the demographic one. This slogan was adopted at independence in 1945. This can indicate in a first approach a strongly united population, a country where people are allowed to practice and conserve their ethnic Identity. But this never was the general case in Indonesia. There is this insidious ordinary racism in the country that takes place in their everyday living. Because this sacred diversity is however limited to ethnic groups with claims to a territory: this includes the Javanese, the Sundanese and the Madurese. There are other local groups that are not as significant. For the other groups that can not have the same claims, it is another story especially when it comes to the Chinese Indonesian. Being migrants with powerful and strategic positions, they are often excluded by the population or they exclude themselves. If this is how the Indonesian society can be perceived, it isn’t the same when it comes to the marketing approach. It can be said that it is not that simple to talk about ethnic marketing in Indonesia when it is related to physical characteristics. If the comparison was made with Singapore, It is much easier to identify that a person belongs to a certain ethnic group when she is shown in an advertisement. It becomes more delicate when the ethnic groups have a lot of similarities. Even if Chinese, Indo or Arab origins Indonesians are not accepted everywhere or not recognized as true Indonesian by a part of the society, they still have their place and are represented for marketing purposes. We can give an example of Western Union: For the first Ad, adressed to the chinese Indonesian poulation, the person is an office working man, we would rather think that he has a good salary and is educated. The emphasis here is about the importance of the speed of the transaction. For the second Ad, more adressed to Indonesians with claims of territory, The main character is a little girl that due to the received money, could go to school. It shows the importance that is taking girls education in those groups. When it comes to the language, companies that operate at a national level generally use Indonesian or English for their advertisement campaigns. The use of a specific language related to a group is more likely to stay in the frame of small companies that operates in very restricted areas.

Essay --

INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL SCIENCE ASSIGNMENT II 016201300090 IR-1 / 2013 2013 I. System Theory – David Easton System theory was first announced by David Easton, a Canadian political scientist in 1965. He is most well-known for his proposal of applying the theory in the world of political science. System theory basically explains about how the environment and social life as well give contribution and affect the political system around them, and the process goes on cyclically. Firstly, there are demands or supports from the surrounding environment of the present time (demands of changes from people/citizens, for example: rise of salary, changes of policy, better welfare and public facilities). These demands are to be said by Easton as inputs, which then will be taken into account to the political system. Secondly, after going through considerations in political system, the received inputs leads the political system into making decisions and or actions, called as outputs given to the social environment (for example: new policy, new rules, new facilities). Thirdly, the ‘outputs’ are given to the environment and the political system lets them interact. If the outputs given resulting in some changes or improvement, it means there are outcomes. Lastly, after some time the environment interacts with the new outputs, there might be some more changes demanded to the outcomes (for example, the new policies/rules are too strict, the facilities needs be tter management). These new demands towards the outcomes are called feedbacks. Feedbacks will once again be taken into account by the political system, which we can consider as the new inputs - in other words it’s back to the first time, hence called a cyclical process. For example... ... utilitarianism could be done in a wrong way. For example, an act of stealing from the rich to give the benefits to the poor, will still be considered a good action. Even though the process could be considered as a crime, the purpose or result however, is to promote the happiness of the poor people; for what matters to utilitarianism is the results only, not the motives nor the methods – hence the questions arise about utilitarianism being unjust. However, according to Mill arguments regarding the protests, justice actually preserves peace among people, and that is the implementation of the definition of utilitarianism itself. Utilitarianism theory can also be implemented in government nowadays in case of creating rules and policies and especially in making decisions, in means that the decisions made can bring out the best results which will actually benefit people.

The Pleasure Of Meaning :: essays research papers

<a href="http://www.geocities.com/vaksam/">Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites Abstract People often confuse satisfaction or pleasure with meaning. It is one thing to ask "How" (what Science does), another to seek an answer to "Why" (a teleological quest in most cases) and still different to contemplate the "What for". For instance: people often do something because it gives them pleasure or satisfaction – however this does not endow the act with meaning. Meaningless things can be – and many times, are – pleasant and satisfying. A prime example is human games. Games are structured, they are governed by rules and represent the results of negotiations, analysis, synthesis and forecasting. They please and satisfy. Yet, a few will dispute their meaninglessness. Games are useful. They teach and prepare us for real life situations. Sometimes, they bring in their wake fame, status, money, the ability to influence the real world. And even this does not make them meaningful. It is easy to answer HOW people play games. Specify the rules of the game or observe it long enough, until the rules become apparent – and you have the answer. It is easy to answer WHAT FOR do people play games. Pleasure, satisfaction, money, fame, learning, simulating real life experiences in anticipation and preparation for them. But al this does not draw us an inch closer to the answer to the question: WHAT IS THE MEANING OF GAMES? For meaning to exist, we must have the following (cumulating) elements: A relationship between at least two distinctive (at least partially mutually exclusive) entities (space-time is the result of such a relationship) This relationship must manifest itself as the ability to map important parts of the entities unto each other ("Important" – without which the entity is not the same, an identity element) That one of the entities should be larger than the other in some important sense. One of the entities must be physically bigger, older, more encompassing, mappable to more entities, etc. That there be an interpreter to discern and understand the relationship between the entities (therefore, an "intelligent" interpreter) That such observations would lead the interpreter (potentially) to explain and to predict an important facet of the identity and of the behaviour of one of the entities (usually, in terms of the other, within the context and while using the laws of mathematical logic) That the understanding of a "Meaning" will provoke in a human observer an emotional reaction and in a non-human observer, an alteration in its information content and / or in its behaviour The Pleasure Of Meaning :: essays research papers <a href="http://www.geocities.com/vaksam/">Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites Abstract People often confuse satisfaction or pleasure with meaning. It is one thing to ask "How" (what Science does), another to seek an answer to "Why" (a teleological quest in most cases) and still different to contemplate the "What for". For instance: people often do something because it gives them pleasure or satisfaction – however this does not endow the act with meaning. Meaningless things can be – and many times, are – pleasant and satisfying. A prime example is human games. Games are structured, they are governed by rules and represent the results of negotiations, analysis, synthesis and forecasting. They please and satisfy. Yet, a few will dispute their meaninglessness. Games are useful. They teach and prepare us for real life situations. Sometimes, they bring in their wake fame, status, money, the ability to influence the real world. And even this does not make them meaningful. It is easy to answer HOW people play games. Specify the rules of the game or observe it long enough, until the rules become apparent – and you have the answer. It is easy to answer WHAT FOR do people play games. Pleasure, satisfaction, money, fame, learning, simulating real life experiences in anticipation and preparation for them. But al this does not draw us an inch closer to the answer to the question: WHAT IS THE MEANING OF GAMES? For meaning to exist, we must have the following (cumulating) elements: A relationship between at least two distinctive (at least partially mutually exclusive) entities (space-time is the result of such a relationship) This relationship must manifest itself as the ability to map important parts of the entities unto each other ("Important" – without which the entity is not the same, an identity element) That one of the entities should be larger than the other in some important sense. One of the entities must be physically bigger, older, more encompassing, mappable to more entities, etc. That there be an interpreter to discern and understand the relationship between the entities (therefore, an "intelligent" interpreter) That such observations would lead the interpreter (potentially) to explain and to predict an important facet of the identity and of the behaviour of one of the entities (usually, in terms of the other, within the context and while using the laws of mathematical logic) That the understanding of a "Meaning" will provoke in a human observer an emotional reaction and in a non-human observer, an alteration in its information content and / or in its behaviour

David the King

David the King of Israel and the 21 Irrefutable Laws of Leadership After two thousand years of being scattered around the world, the Israelites, God’s chosen people were finally able to come back to their historic home. When they finally settled in and formed a new government, they decided to have as their national symbol a flag with the Star of David prominently displayed in the center. One has to ask, of all the great and mighty leaders that have come and gone in the history of ancient Israel, they opted to have David as the symbol of unity, strength, resiliency, courage and above all integrity for the newly formed nation. This paper will look into the life of David and how he has risen from anonymity and transformed himself to become the most effective general and political leader Israel has ever known. Introduction Based on what can be gleaned from the Bible, David did not come from royalty. But his family could not also be considered as dirt poor since his grandparents according to the Book of Ruth owned land. Nevertheless, David had to work as a shepherd boy to help augment the income of his family. They also have no servants because when it was time to seek news and provide supplies to his brothers in the war front, David’s father asked his youngest son to travel instead of asking a trusted male servant to the job. The above-mentioned information is very important because it must be established that David was not groomed as a leader. It also provides contrast to the current situation in the 21st century where people are more aware of leadership quality traits and that schools and leadership programs are being established to replicate good leaders. But it was not the case with David. It can be argued that David was thrust into the limelight so to speak and he did not plot his way to the throne of Israel. When he visited his brothers, he witnessed and heard and unusual sight – the people of God cowered in fear against a man-giant called Goliath. The 8-foot plus warrior was taunting and blaspheming the Israelites and Yahweh respectively. His young heart could not take the insults and so he decided to do something about it and the rest as they say is history. 21 Laws of Leadership The fact that David did not consciously desired to be king and the fact that his family did not actively encouraged him to set his sights so high can be a very good starting point for studying the 21 laws of leadership. If Maxwell was right then even ancient peoples practiced these principles. If this study provides proof that an ancient leader such as David did indeed – consciously or unconsciously – sought out the benefits of these principles then at the end of this study one can conclude that John Maxwell was right to say that these principles are indeed irrefutable. The following pages describes Maxwell’s laws of leadership as seen in the life of David: A. The Law of the Lid- Leadership ability determines a person’s level of effectiveness David did not enroll in leadership school. His was a training program found in the wilderness. It was not formal but he desired to perfect the little talent that he had and from here he accelerated faster than the others did. During this time all he knew was three skills. The first one was to tend sheep; the second one is the ability to ward off predators using a slingshot and stick; and finally the ability to play the harp B. The Law of Process- Leadership develops daily, not in a day There were others who probably knew the same skills set as David but he became an expert in the little things on a daily basis he practiced the playing of the harp and the dead aim of a slingshot-shooter able to scare away lions and bears. He kept plugging on it until his fame grew as a young boy eager to please his father and also as a budding musician skillful with the harp. Because of constantly desiring excellence even in the little things, David was rewarded in his efforts. The news of a good musician skilled in the art of providing happiness to a gloomy heart reached the ears of a depressed King Saul. This was the beginning of an accelerated development process for David. On the part of David, it is very probable that he was not there absentmindedly fiddling with the harp but actively soaking it in learning all that he could. Now, the young is not only learning about the ways of sheep, lions, and bear he is also beginning to get an insight into the ways of a leader in the times when he was called into the palace. During this time, David had insider information as to how a government should be run. There were only a few young men given the privilege of doing so. C. The Law of Intuition- Leaders evaluate everything with a leadership bias There were many examples in his life when one can see this principle regarding intuition is in full display. The first one is when he faced Goliath. David did not grandstand or acted foolish as was suggested by his brothers. God knew what was going on, David was prompted by something so profound that no one in the whole camp was able to understand except this young man. The leader’s intuition was first displayed here when David refused to back down from a blasphemer and instead asked permission to go to battle with the giant. The second time this intuition was on display was when David refused to glory in humiliating Saul and finally when his enemy was killed he did not gloat and showed tremendous restraint choosing instead to mourn the former ruler of Israel. In this way David demonstrated a leadership bias and not merely someone following the dictates of emotions. D. The Law of Influence- The true measure of leadership is influence When David decided to become a dutiful son he immediately became an influence in his region. He was well known and it is the reason why he was brought to the palace of the king. Yet his influence grew even more in his association with the king. Finally his capacity to influence others grew exponentially when he destroyed Goliath. This capability was in full display when was able to convince the King that the whole nation should put their trust in him, knowing fully well that if he failed then Israel will be enslaved by the Philistines. His ability to influence grew as he was considered as Israel’s new hero. The Adult Years In the second phase of his life, David finds himself married, a successful career in the military and serving a delusional king, severely depressed and jealous of his success. It was at this time when he was driven out of the palace and he survived by living in caves. It is also at this point in his life when one can observe the following leadership principles come into play: 1. The Law of E.F. Hutton- When a real leader speaks, people listen 2. The Law of Respect- People naturally follow leaders stronger than themselves 3. The Law of Magnetism- Who you are is who you attract 4.The Law of Solid Ground- Trust is the foundation of leadership 5. The Law of Empowerment- Only secure leaders give powers to others 6. The Law of Connection- Leaders touch a heart before they ask for a hand The people that he met – during the time when he was Public Enemy No. 1 – were acknowledged to be fugitives like David. Many were the dirty dregs of society and the Israeli military would love nothing but their capture. Yet it was from this group that David handpicked his future leaders and used it as the core to create one of the most feared armed forces in the history of ancient warfare (1 Sam. 22). This could only happen if David was able to practice the 8 leadership principles listed above, including those mentioned previously. The desperate men gathered in the caves listened to David because they believe in him and they respect him because they sense that he is a man of inner strength. They probably heard that he was the one who had slain the giant while he (David) was still in puberty. They may have also figured out that Saul is hunting him down though he is innocent. So they were attracted to him because like them he has full of potential but circumstances conspired to make him a lesser man. It is also because of David’s loyalty to Saul – in spite of the king’s ingratitude – that made the people feel that they can trust this young man. So by training them and teaching them how to behave like a disciplined military unit, he was able to touch their inner being and he was able to empower them. Reigning King The following principles are evident even before he was making a push to ascend the throne of Israel. But it was only when he reached manhood when David was mature enough to display the following: E. The Law of Navigation- Anyone can steer the ship, but it takes a leader to chart the course For many years, David was living in a remote outpost far from Saul. But when Saul was dead he knew that the best step is to go to the capital and claim what was rightfully his according to the late prophet Samuel. F. The Law of The Big Mo- Momentum is a leader’s best friend David allowed his organization, his small band of men to gather momentum. There is no use charging a fortified target if the group is not yet ready. Momentum was building for years and when he was ready he made it known that it was time to go to Jerusalem. G. The Law of Timing- When to lead is as important as what to do and where to go Those who are eager enough to seize power and those who are foolish enough to charge in without being sensitive to what is happening all around him is not a good leader. David demonstrated his knack for timing when he did not immediately enter Jerusalem after Saul’s death. He waited until he has gathered enough support – until his army is ready to face whatever it is that the enemy can throw against them. H. The Law of Production- It takes a leader to raise up a leader One of the main reasons why David was able to establish a strong government can be attributed to his ability to raise up leaders. He was able to train former fugitives who used to have no direction in life until he stepped in and intervened in their behalf. The result was awesome, a multitude of military leaders were equipped and made ready for battle. I. The Law of Buy-In- People buy into the leader and then the vision Aside from leading a band of former fugitives to capture Jerusalem and other key areas in the Promised Land, the vision that David provided for his men were almost impossible to achieve. The men who went with him in pursuit of the dream have to believe first in David before they could follow him into harm’s way. J. The Law of the Inner Circle- A leader’s potential is determined by those closest to him It is important to note that David’s capability can also be determined by the caliber of people that he surrounds himself with. According to 2Sam 16 it was not only efficient military commanders that comprise David’s inner circle but also religious men who are also an important component of Israel society. K. The Law of Victory- Leaders find a way for the team to win David, it seems, can find the solution to his problem in just the nick of time. He saw the weakness in Goliath’s armor and he was well aware of his enemies weaknesses and strength allowing him to become Israel’s’ most victorious military strategist. L. The Law of Priorities- Leaders understand that activity is not necessarily accomplishment When Absalom, David’s son decided to rebel against his father and tried to usurp the kingdom, David did the unthinkable. He retreated and crossed the Jordan. He saw no reason to fight Absalom and engage him head on. He was criticized by this act but he demonstrated that it is not only ruthless action that can win wars. M. The Law of Sacrifice- A leader must give up to go up It is too many to count the times when David decided to sacrifice something in order to win. The first time that he demonstrated this is by obeying his father and doing all the tedious work needed to support his family. The second incident is when he decided to run away rather than to stage a coup against his King Saul. N.The Law of Explosive Growth- To add growth, lead followers-to multiply, lead leaders In the earlier part of his reign David was able to grow the army in size and potency in warfare. David has at least thirty chiefs responsible for hundreds of men. On top of this there are many that defected to David to increase further the strength of his army. O. The Law of Legacy – A leader's lasting value is measured by succession Before he died, David left the Kingdom of Israel into the hands of capable men. One of them is Solomon who grew up to lead Israel into its golden age. But there is perhaps no other legacy that David left behind than to prepare a bloodline from which Jesus Christ will come from. Conclusion Even though the 21 laws of leadership was a modern take at leadership principles and values; it is clear to see that ancient men were able to observe and practice them. One of the ancient rulers who benefited greatly from the wisdom of the 21 laws is a young man called David. He was once a shepherd boy who grew up to become one of the most beloved and one of the most accomplished military general and ruler of Israel. References Maxwell, J. (2007). The 21 Irrefutable Laws of Leadership. Retrieved from: Â  Accessed 17 September 2007. Holy Bible. (2005) Today’s New International Version. CO: International Bible Society. Â  

Life Did Get Better for Many Americans in the 1930s Essays

Life Did Get Better for Many Americans in the 1930s Essays Life Did Get Better for Many Americans in the 1930s Essay Life Did Get Better for Many Americans in the 1930s Essay The New Deal was put into place in 1933; it was a government scheme to create jobs, by spending money on work schemes such as building roads and dams, and also to help the unemployed and poor. The scheme was based on the idea that once people were earning wages, they would begin to buy goods, businesses would begin to revive, they would then employ workers, theses workers in turn would earn money and therefore spending it in the economy, and so on. Thus meaning that the downward spiral caused by the depression would be changed into an upwards spiral, boosting the lives of U.S. citizens. The New Deal helped many Americans; the Federal Emergency Relief Act (FERA) provided $500 million in benefits to the poor and the unemployed. Another scheme, the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) helped the economy revive in two ways, it employed young men and some women between the ages of 18 25. The money they earned helped to revive the economy when they re-invested in it, as well as this, the work they did helped the agricultural market, since it included things such as planting trees to stop soil erosion. Another way in which the New Deal helped the Agricultural economy was through the agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) of 1933, it meant that crops were destroyed and animals slaughtered, in order to make prices rise, therefore enabling farmers to sell at a profit again, thus improving the conditions of farmers lives. A further technique by which the New Deal helped farmers and people living in farming valleys was via the Tennessee Valley authority. The scheme was intended to provide cheap electricity, stop floods and make the soil fertile. The scheme worked, by 1943, 80% of valley farms transferred from kerosene lamps to electricity. The Second part of the new Deal, which began in 1935 greatly worked to improve the lives of ordinary U.S. citizens. It included the Social Security Act (SSA), this began the first national system for helping old citizens through a pension scheme, it also provided benefit for the unemployed, and this improved the lives of ordinary citizens. Other policies of the New Deal which improved the lives of many Americans during the 1930s were the Works Progress Administration (WPA) which provided employment, by schemes such as building schools, hospitals and roads, as well as finding assignments for writers artists and photographers. This improved lives by providing jobs, and therefore money to citizens, as well as good schools and hospitals to increase their living standards. Also the Wagner act of 1935 improved lives for workers living in the 1930s, it gave every worker the right to join a union, in order to enhance their working standards. The act also set up the National Labour Relations Board to punish employers who did not recognise workers rights. Still, despite this there were many limitations to the New deal, which refrained the lives of many Americans from getting better. Despite authorities such as the CCC, TVA and WPA helping in getting Americans back to work unemployment still remained high and women and black workers were not given as fair a chance as white male workers. This was mainly due to the fact that the majority of black workers were neither skilled nor unionised, so the policies of the New Deal did not affect them very much, though the black workers it did affect, it mainly did so in a negative way. For example when crops were destroyed through the AAA the compensation given only reached the people at the top the land owners, the workers mainly blacks lost their jobs in exchange, since the less crops there were the less work their was to be done. 20, 000 blacks lost their jobs due to taking land out of production. Also black people, and women were still paid less than men, even if they did the same job as men . They were only used because they received a lower pay. Another example of the limitations of the New Deal was that despite the Emergency Banking ACT (EBA), which helped to re-open banks, trust in banks was not yet fully restored, and investment still only reached 75% of former levels. The greatest limitation of the New Deal was the opposition to its policies, it received opposition from campaigners for States Rights, which objected to schemes like the TVA that forced them to co-operate in the Federal Governments plan to build dams across seven states, it believed that the right of states to make their own laws was being taken over by the state government. Opposition such as this slowed down the policies of the New Deal from coming into place. Other objection came from the Supreme Court, it decided that many of Roosevelts deals were unconstitutional this meant they were illegal. When Roosevelt threatened to retire judges even the general public turned against him, they thought he was interfering too much, so the idea was abandoned. Fortunately for the New Deal some judges retired anyway, and new younger judges supported Roosevelt. This delayed many policies, but it was overcome eventually. One major group, which made a strong barrier against policies of the New Deal, was rich business men such as Al Smith and John Davis and wealthy organisations such as the American Liberty League, they did not like the interference of the New Deal, they opposed it for giving support to workers, and also for choosing to help the poor although he was rich himself. Although Roosevelt challenged big business it remained very powerful and was able to undermine the policies of the New Deal. The consequences of opposition groups were that after the problem with the Supreme Court in 1936 Roosevelt became more cautious, and in 1937 since prosperity seemed to be returning Roosevelt cut the New Deal budget, this was exactly what Conservatives wanted. Many workers employed by the New Deals own organisations were laid off, this cut in spending triggered cuts throughout the economy, and the downward spiral in the economy began once again. This recession meant that Roosevelt was badly affected, in the1937 congressional elections the Republicans did well, this meant that it became much harder for Roosevelt to push his reforms through congress. Still, Roosevelt was still popular with ordinary elections, he was re-elected with a big majority in 1940, but now Americas attention became focused on the outbreak of war in Europe. The war helped to improve peoples lives and the economy through providing jobs to a large majority of Americans, men to fight in the war and women to work in factories making ammunition, this helped greatly to reduce unemployment and revive the economy For those people whose lives did change in the majority of the 1930s it was due to the New Deal, although the new Deal did not help everybody. Still it was not the only factor contributing to the improved living standards, the war played an important role in improving the economy and the lives of US citizens towards the late 1930s, and in the early 1940s.

A Guide to Dantes 9 Circles of Hell

A Guide to Dantes 9 Circles of Hell Dante’s Inferno (14th C) is the first part of a three-part epic poem, followed by and Paradiso. Those approaching the La Divina Commedia (The Divine Comedy) for the first time might benefit from a brief structural description. This first part is Dante’s journey through the nine circles of Hell, guided by the poet Virgil.  At the beginning of the story, a woman, Beatrice, calls for an angel to bring Virgil to guide and aid Dante in his journey so that no harm will befall him. The nine circles of Hell, in order of entrance and of severity   Limbo: Where those who never knew Christ exist. Dante encounters ​Ovid, Homer, Socrates, Aristotle, Julius Caesar and more here.  Lust: Self-explanatory.  Dante encounters Achilles, Paris, Tristan, Cleopatra, Dido, and others here.Gluttony:  Where those who over-indulge exist.  Dante encounters ordinary people (i.e. not characters from the epic poems or gods from mythology) here.  Boccaccio takes one of these characters, Ciacco, and later incorporates him into The Decameron (14th C).Greed: Self-explanatory. Dante encounters more ordinary people, but also the guardian of the circle, Pluto.  Virgil discusses the nation of â€Å"Fortune† but they do not directly interact with any inhabitants of this circle (the first time they pass through a circle without speaking to anyone – a comment on Dante’s opinion of Greed as a higher sin).Anger: Dante and Virgil are threatened by the Furies when they try to enter through the walls  of Dis (Satan). This is a  further progression in Dante’s evaluation of the nature of sin; he also begins to question himself and his own life, realizing his actions/nature could lead him to this permanent torture.   Heresy: Rejection of religious and/or political â€Å"norms.†Ã‚  Dante encounters Farinata  degli  Uberti, a military leader and an aristocrat tried to win the Italian throne, convicted of heresy in 1283. Dante also meets Epicurus, Pope Anastasius II, and Emperor Frederick II.  Violence:  This is the first circle to be further segmented into sub-circles or rings. There are three of them, the Outer, Middle, and Inner rings, and each ring houses different types of violent criminals.  The first are those who were violent against people and property, such as Attila the Hun.  Centaurs guard this Outer Ring and shoot its inhabitants with arrows.  The Middle Ring consists of those who commit violence against themselves (suicide).  These sinners are perpetually eaten by Harpies.  The Inner Ring is made up of the blasphemers, or those who are violent against God and nature. One of these sinners is  Brunetto  Latini, a sodomite, who was Dante’s own mentor (n ote that Dante speaks kindly to him). The usurers are also here, as are those who blasphemed not just against â€Å"God† but also the gods, such as Capaneus, who blasphemed against Zeus. Fraud: This circle is distinguished from its predecessors by its being made up of those who consciously and willingly commit fraud.  Within the 8th  circle, there is another called the Malebolge  (â€Å"Evil Pockets†) which houses 10 separate Bolgias  (â€Å"ditches†). In these exist different types of frauds, including: Panderers/Seducers (1), Flatterers (2), Simoniacs  (those who sell ecclesiastical preferment) (3), Sorcerers/Astrologers/False Prophets (4), Barrators  (corrupt politicians) (5), Hypocrites (6), Thieves (7), False Counsellors/Advisers (8), Schismatics (those who separate religions to form new ones) (9), and Alchemists/Counterfeiters, Perjurers, Impersonators, etc. (10).  Each of these Bolgias  is guarded by different demons, and the inhabitants suffer different punishments, such as the Simoniacs who are stood head-first in stone bowls and forced to endure flames upon their feet.Treachery:  The deepest circle of Hell, where Satan reside s.  As with the last two circles, this one is further divided, this time into four rounds. The first is Caina, named after the Biblical Cain who murdered his own brother.  This round is for traitors to kindred (family).  The second is named Antenora  and comes from Antenor of Troy who betrayed the Greeks.  This round is reserved for political/national traitors. The third is Ptolomaea (for Ptolemy son of Abubus) who is known for inviting Simon Maccabaeus and his sons to dinner and then murdering them.  This round is for hosts who betray their guests; they are punished more harshly because of the traditional belief that having guests means entering into a voluntary relationship (unlike the relationships with family and country, which we are born into); thus, betraying a relationship you willingly enter is considered more despicable.  The fourth round is Judecca, after Judas Iscariot who betrayed Christ. This is the round reserved for traitors to their lords/benefactors/m asters. As in the previous circle, the subdivisions each have their own demons and punishments. The Center of Hell After making their way through all nine circles of Hell, Dante and Virgil reach the center of Hell. Here they meet Satan, who is described as a three-headed beast.  Each mouth is busy eating a specific person – the left mouth is eating Brutus, the right is eating Cassius, and the center mouth is eating Judas Iscariot.  Brutus and Cassius are those who betrayed and caused the murder of Julius Caesar.  Judas did the same to Jesus Christ.  These are the ultimate sinners, in Dante’s opinion, as they consciously committed acts of treachery against their lords, who were appointed by God.